by Saranjam & Walayat Shah
Regeneration status of forest trees in Ayubia National
Park
Abstract
Research study has been conducted to determine
the current status of natural regeneration of Conifers and broad leaves trees in the Moist
Temperate Zone of Ayubia National Park.
Hundred, fixed area plots having
different characteristics of terrain slop, aspects were taken to analyze the
impact of free grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection, climatic condition, aspect
and forest fire at the growth of natural regeneration of the forest.
The collective finding shows that the natural
regeneration in the entire park is dense, frequent and contiguous. The Pinus wallichiana along with broad leave
have high potential in regeneration, pole crops and mother trees. The regeneration
density of Pinus wallichiana is 5.3 /
hec, Abies pindrow 3.01 / hec, Cedrus deodara 0.73 / hec, Taxus baccata 0.51 / hec and Broad Leaves 5.9 / hec over the total area of the park.
A high number of regeneration has been
recorded at the South aspect than the North because of heavy snow fall and sun
light variations. The study reveals that there exist close relationship of
slope and regeneration i.e. high numbers 60.77 % exist on Gentle, 25.24 % and
13.98 % found at steep and Normal slopes respectively.
The overall discussion show that the natural
regeneration of Ayubia National Park is good but still it confronted to various
surrounded factors of human beings such as fuel wood collection, trampling,
grazing and natural hazards which
contributing to the considerable loss of regeneration, that could be easily
removed by applying the recommended suggestion to improve the existence regeneration
status of ANP.
Table of Contents
S.No
|
Title
|
Page No
|
*
|
List of Abbreviations
|
i
|
**
|
Acknowledgement
|
ii
|
***
|
Abstract
|
iii
|
****
|
Chapters
|
|
1
|
Introduction
1.1
Topography
and Climate
1.2
Surrounding
settlement
1.3
Fauna
of the park
1.4
Vegetation
of the Park
1.5
Objectives
of the study
1.6
Justification
|
1
|
2
|
Literature Review
|
5
|
3
|
Methodology
3.1
Methodology
3.1.1 Area of plots
3.1.2 Distribution pattern of sampling
plots
3.1.3 Fixed point sampling technique
3.2
Materials
3.3
Regeneration
measurement standards
3.4
Questionnaire
survey
3.5
Personal
observation
3.6
Circumference
of Pole crops & Mother trees
3.7
Diameter
at Breast Height (DBH)
3.8
Data
analysis
|
8
|
4
|
Results and Discussions
4.1
Regeneration
status
4.2
Comparison
of regeneration density (/hec) with the densities of Pole
crops and Mother trees
4.3
Correlation
of aspect and regeneration
4.4
Slope
and regeneration
4.5
Threats
to trees in ANP
|
12
|
5
|
Conclusion
and recommendations
|
18
|
6
|
Annexure -1
|
21
|
7
|
Annexure -2
|
29
|
8
|
References
|
32
|
Chapter # 1
INTRODUCTION
Water is the main source
for the survival of life in the ecosystem. Like other resources, nature has
created a balance between its various forms for its better utilization and for
the continuity of normal hydrological cycle. Water after use is recycled by
nature through various stages to a form in which, it can be used by human being
(Peavey et al, 1885).
Every action relevant to
any type of developmental achievements will need the availability of sufficient
and in-time amount of water. The most important use of water at the moment in Pakistan is for
agriculture. However, as the society develops, human consumption and industrial
requirements would also have substantial claim on this precious resource. The
water scarcity problems grew in variety, complexity and urgency with time and
increase in human population with the rapid industrialization. The growing
demands for additional water raised an intense need for the establishment of a
new branch of knowledge, the Watershed Management (Arifeen et al, 2004).
Watershed can be defined as a “Land mass
which drains into a stream system, delineated by a circumscribing boundary
called the divide and has an outlet which is either the mouth of stream, or a
measuring point, or other designed point of interest” (Lee, 1980).
Watershed management has
important to all types of land uses such as settlements, cultivated,
non-cultivated, forest and range for the provision of fresh water, minimizing
the loss of soil, flood hazards and siltation of productive lands and dams.
Infiltration is the movement of water into the soil surface. The number of the
pores and water contents are the most important factors determining the part of
the precipitation that infiltrate and the amount of runoff produced. High infiltration
rates, therefore not only increase the amount of water stored in the soil for
plant use but also reduce flood threats and erosion resulting from runoff.
Vegetation enhances infiltration in a number of ways. Presence of litters and
humus layer lowers surface runoff. Interception of rainfall increases the
duration of effective precipitation. Crumb or aggregated structure, which is
essential for high infiltration, is maintained by vegetation (Hussain, 2007).
The loss of vegetation
cover on the one hand has resulted in the degradation of habitats of various
plant and animal species and on the other, posed serious threats to the already
degraded watersheds.
The most valuable and
important forest type in Pakistan
is the Moist Temperate Forests,
covering an area of 1.959 million-hectare. In past those forest were considered
as the main source of timber and fuel wood, but very little attention has been
paid to their services towards conservation of soil and water, control of
floods, prevention of siltation of water reservoirs and provision of
recreational spots (Ziab, 2006).
The study area Miandam is the best representative of Moist Temperate
Forest in Pakistan with a
high diversity of vulnerable plant and animal species. The forests of Miandam are being cut ruthlessly.
Last year 2.62 million ft of wood has been extracted from the forests of
Miandam, the impacts of which are visible in the form of more and frequent
flashfloods, loss of soil, reduced productivity of agricultural land and
reduction in fresh water sources. Being
closely linked to livelihood opportunities the process of depletion may
ultimately increase the poverty, which will be further sustained by reduction
in tourism, which is a source of revenue for many local (Hussain, 2006).
1.1 Scope of the Study
So for sufficient work has been
carried out to find the chemical properties of water in relation to plant
growth. But very little attention has been paid to the physical characteristics
of, important from vegetation cover point of view, in Pakistan. This study was therefore designed to determine, the impact
of different categories of vegetation on quality and quantity of water through
change in sediment load and sustainability in flow of water in streams.
Based on the comprehensive and required information
collected, three major streams were selected i.e. Gujaroo Khawar, Kaldar
Khawar and Sapronoo/swatoo Khawar. The vegetation density of
watersheds of Gujaroo, Kaldar and Sapronoo Khawar is high
(>60% canopy cover), moderate (30– 60% cover) and low (<30 all="" and="" arch-="" canopy="" collected="" cover="" data="" determine="" different="" from="" hydrological="" impact="" in="" load="" may="" of="" on="" ov-feb="" periodically="" respectively.="" response="" seasons="" sediment="" span="" spring="" streams="" summer="" the="" three="" to="" une-sept="" vegetation="" were="" winter="">
1.2 Objectives
of the study
1. Analyzing the
impact of deforestation and land use pattern on seasonal variation in discharge
and water suspended and dissolved contents.
1.3 Methodology
As the study based on the comparison of three seasons, for
this purpose, in the study area three watersheds of different vegetation zone
such as high vegetation zone(>60%),moderate vegetation zone (30-60%) and low vegetation zone
(<30 .="" selected="" span="" style="mso-spacerun: yes;" were=""> The water
quality and quantity of these khwars were then analyzed.
For the quality, the water samples were collected from the
three khwars in three different seasons of winter, spring and summer and
analyzed for various parameters in labortry
For the determination of quantity, the discharge formulae
were used and measured at the spot. The formula used were “velocity * cross
section area of stream”.
1.4 Findings
The major findings of the study are
·
The results of three
seasons show a little variation in the quality and quantity of the three water
khwars.
·
It is clear that there
is no direct impact of seasons at the water quality and quantity.
·
A strong correlation
was observed between vegetation cover and water sediment load.
·
From the water quality
analysis it is cleared that the downstream water are majorly polluted from the
different land use activities carried in the upper watersheds.
·
It is also observed
that the vegetation play a significant role in the control of water stream
flow.
Chapter # 2
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
2.1 Physiography
Miandam is located in the North east of swat district and
lies between 340-34 to 350-07 N latitude and 720-36
to 730-35 E longitudes in Hindukush mountain range (Hussain et al,
2006). The valley comprises of 5 villages that is Jukhtai, Barham patai,
saney, khair abad and Miandam with
high altitudinal variation ranges from 1310 meters at Fateh pur tehsil
to 3800 meter at Ghogalo sar, being the highest peak of the valley (Gul,
et al ,2005-06). The population of the area about 20529, mostly dependent upon
agriculture, forest and livestock raring. The total area of the valley 6949 ha.
The valley has some influence of monsoon while the precipitation is mainly
received during winter and spring in the form of snow. Snow accumulation varies
from 2 ft to 10ft depending on elevation (Hussain et al, 2006).
2.2 Climatology
The climate of the study area is cooled. In summer it is
pleasant and in winter it is much cooled and temperature falls below the
freezing point. Summer temperature of 10-25 0C give way to lush
green meadows and thick green forests of pines. The annual precipitation ranges
from 1000 to 1250 mm with dry spells in May, June, November and December. The
lower part receives rain while the upper parts receive heavy snowfall (2-3m)
from January to late April (Ziab, 2005).
2.3 Rocks and soil
According to the Department of Geology University of
Peshawar the study area comprises upper swat hornblendic group geological
formation. It is rocks ranges in composition amphibole, shists, gneisses,
diorites, quartz and norite. The soil derive from the disintegration and
decomposition of parent rocks, varies from in plate area and comparatively
shallow in steep locality. The soil is generally fertile and is mostly suitable
for tree growth and agriculture.
Flora and vegetation in the valley has moist temperate
environment and varies climatically in different parts because of variation in
altitude and exposure to sun. The total floral species identified in Miandam
valley about 300. In which 190 are the medicinal plants species, 29 vegetable
species, 28 fodder, 15 wild fruit species, 11 fuel wood and 8 are considered
the heavy timber species in the vegetation of the area. Out of the 190
medicinal plants 27 are endangered, 13 are rare and 10 are vulnerable species
in the area (Adnan, 2006).
2.4 Hydrology
Miandam valley is the largest watershed, which gave the
area of 70 km2. The watershed of Miandam valley having 4388 ha
forest area in which 40% is covered with coniferous forest. Large part of the
area is rainfed only stream is the Miandam khwar feeding whole of the
area. The Miandam khwar is accumulated
the entire water of the valley contributed by the small khwars in which some are Mosa khwar, Kaldar khwar, Shonga khwar,
Gujaroo khwar and Saproona khwar which are
originating from different sites of watersheds ridges of the valley (Gul et al,
2005-06).
The study area covered three watersheds of Gujaroo, Kaldar and Swatoo khwars.
2.5 Land use pattern
The main land uses of the area are forest, pasture/meadows
and agriculture.
2.5.1 Forest
Forest has always been recognized as a rich reservoir of precious
genetic and organic resources. The valley occupied the phytogeographic position
in the Sino Japanese belt. The forests have covered 4388 ha area in the valley.
The potential forest types of the study area are
I.
Dry oak forest
(Quercus baloot)
Patches of oak forest comprising Quercus
baloot, Quercus incana and Quercus dialatat occurring in the study area.
The trees are heavily cut and looped for wood and fodder.
II.
Low level Blue pines (pinus wallachiana forest)
Low
level blue pine forest occurs from 1500-2500m elevation in the study area. The
component of the tree canopy is blue pines. It is associated with alnus nitata, ficus species, juglanas rigia and Quercus anana, the under growth comprises of Ber Beries, lyceum, cenabies sitva, indigofera species and vibernam nervosium
III.
Upper West Himalayan
Fir Forest
It is mainly comprising of silver fir (abies pindrow) with scattered spruce, (picea smithiana), blue pine and taxus
buccata. It extends from 2400 meters elevations. The forest of Miandam
valley is illicitly cutting for fuel wood and the timber are mostly smuggled
(Ziab, 2005).
One of the major threats to the forest is heavily
deforestation. The main affected trees species are the blue pine and Himalayan
Yew, for timber and oaks for fuel wood (Gul et al, 2005-06). A social survey
found that the last 30 years about the 60% of the forest area has been
deforested. Average rate of deforestation thus calculated in the last 30 years
is 2% per year. It is assumed that deforestation at this rate would take about
20 more years for complete deforestation of the Miandam valley.
Free grazing is another major problem for the
rehabilitation of forests by hindering natural regeneration. In most of the grazing
area the vegetation are depleted and transformed into agriculture land (Adnan,
2006).
2.5.2 Meadows and Grazing
The pastures/meadows occur above tree line that in i.e.
3000m above sea level. These pastures are summer grazing lands and provide
nutrition feed to livestock and some wildlife species. The pastures are locally called Kandao
or Banda (Hussain etal, 2006).
However season long continue free fodder and fuel wood
collection leading to the depletion on the resource base of the area. 70% of the
village’s livestock grazed freely in summer season at upland pasture (Section B-8).
Moreover about 100 nomads each year carry 40000 goats to pasture for which they
pay to the owner of the pasture. They remain there for the summer season
starting from march-April to Oct-Nov. Data of swat forest range management plan
shows that a total of 40 ha. of forest land converted into agricultural
land. (Adnan, 2006)
2.5.3 Agriculture:
The agriculture covered 1719 ha. area in the valley in
which 638 ha. is irrigated agriculture area and 1081 ha. is unirrigated
agriculture area (mean rained area). Agriculture fields are mostly made on
slope where the growing crops are maize (in Harif), wheat (Rabbi)
where as potatoes, onion and tomato are grown in irrigated land in the plain or
lower position. The agriculture crops production is not sufficient to meet the
local needs hence most of the wood community is purchased from other parts of
NWFP. Fruit trees like persimmon, apples, apricots, peaches and plum are
planted on small scale (Ziab, 2005).
2.6 Livestock:
Livestock and farming are independent. Every household keep
livestock for dairy products and farming. The major livestock raised in the
valley are sheep, and goats with some cattle and donkeys. The donkeys and
horses are kept backcaring animals. Sheep and goats are herded together, cows
and buffalos used for milking purposed. One pair of bullocks and one buffalo
and cow is ideal number of livestock in each household. The grassland surrounds
the purpose of grazing ground for the local livestock (Gul et al, 2005).
2.7 Social and political geography:
The population mainly comprises of Gujars, Swates,
Pukhtoons, Miagans and Mulyans. Gujars are purchased land owners
while Ajars with their sheeps and goat flocks stay for short duration
during to and from movements between Bunner and upland of Kohistan. A house is
a basic unit of economic and social life. Household maintain its and an
independent and economic unit occupies. Its member works together, may cook
jointly and posses a formal male head. The landless usually have elementary
families; while the relatively bigger land owners mostly have nucleated
families. The formal head represents the house. All the members of the family
are obliged to follow the decision taken by the head. All the groups have equal
status and shares each other sorrows and happiness. And the majority situation
inter married are allowed. All speak one language, Pushto and follow one
religion sect “Al-sunnat wal-jummat” (Waseem, 2005).
2.8 Professional and source of income:
The local community mainly depend on agriculture, very few
in services sectors, surveying for their livelihood. Majority of the community
is involved in laboring abroad and doing small scale business. The laboring is
generally in hotels, agricultures, and timber extraction. According to a study
conducted by Malakand Rural Development Project, in 1999, nearly 51percent of
annual income of household in the area comes from agriculture, 20 percent from
wages and salary, 17 percent from foreign and domestic remittances and
remaining 12 percent from forest and its products. The main forest products are
timber wood, livestock products, fine needles, morals, wild honey, wild fruits,
fodder and medicinal plants etc. (MRDP,
1999)
2.9 Wildlife
The valley was once a center of wildlife. The old people
told about the previous availability of wildlife. Presently the occurrence and
distribution of wildlife is very scare. The reason is population growth in turn
stressed upon the forest resources through cutting of trees and timber
extraction results the habitat degradation. Wildlife present in the valley is
monkey, jackals, foxes, wolves, wildgoat and black bear. The population of
black bear is very rare and counted as the neglected while the Ramosai
(wildgoat) population is almost extinct.
Variety of bird’s diversity represents the valley,
providing the strong avifaunal strength to the valley. Some of the important
avifauna of the valley is represented by see-see, cockhlas, taroo and morals .The ruthless exploitation
habitat and unchecked hunt stressed the avifaunal distribution, which is facing
by threats of populations reduction. (Waseem, 2005)
Chapter # 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Colaman, (1953) stated that man himself has entered the
water yielding lands and a number of his activities there have been affected
water yield. Forest have been cut, burn, and
cleared. Over vast areas cultivatable plants replace native vegetation, and
tillage has created a new kind of soil. A considerable part of the sediment
load, silt and soil nutrients of stream comes directly from the erosion of
watershed lands; there exist a great variation in the water quality and large
volume of water and runoff exists in the stream cause flash flooding. They
described that the net effect of vegetation is to slow the movement of surface
flowing water, providing longer periods for infiltration, less opportunity for
concentration in rills, and decrease power to cause erosion’. They also argued
the vegetative aspects of water yield control are necessary rather different
from the engineering structural works.
Khan, (1964-A) surveyed the various land uses in the Jhelum watershed and in its major tributaries.
They studied the Kanshi tributary of the Jhelum
and specified that it contributes its water yields and heavy amount of silt
load in the Jhelum because of the
entire track which constitutes the watersheds of Kanshi in almost bare
and doesn’t sustain the substantial vegetation growth. A region is mostly
devoid of natural vegetation cover. A few trees (shisham, kikar, phuli etc)
and some bushes are however here and there.
As a result of which the rate of runoff discharge is much
higher as compare the rate of infiltration/ absorption. The Kanshi
watershed are eroding at the rate of 732 tons per square miles per annum and
total sediment load in acre feet is determine is 238.9 and the average
discharge in the million acre feet is 0.03.
Khan, (1964-B) surveyed the various land uses of the Ravi watershed and its tributaries. They
identified three different land uses, which are scrub forest (area 0.19-3.25
square miles), rangelands (6.48 % of the total area) and cultivated land
(88.73% of the total area). The natural vegetation exit in the land uses are
kikar, Dhak, Mesquite,
papal, Ber and tut and the grasses are khabal and khahi
are reported. Some of the forest was burnt in the recent past and now bears
only a scattered crop of shisham. There is severe rill and gully erosion
in the forest and ranglands in the upper reaches of the catchments. In
agriculture fields sugar cane, potato and hybrid maize crop exist. Compare to
the other land uses of the area agriculture field contribute a heavy amount of
eroded material in the downstream water of Ravi
and its tributaries. These conditions not only change the quality of water but
also create a flooding situation in surrounding areas. The study suggested the
afforestation with shisham to control heavy discharges, maintain soil
composition and to improve the absorption rate.
Roitzsch, 1968) stated that vegetation increases the
infiltration rate (a) by mechanical protection of the soil from rain drop
splash whereby aggregate structure is maintained and clogging of pores is
prevented; (b) by slowing down surface run-off and increasing the time for
infiltration; (c) by the root activity which acts to increase the permeability
of soil
Gilmour, (1977) stated that the sediment derived from
stream flowing through undisturbed forest was largely organic, in contrast with
the dominantly mineral sediments and streams coming form the logged areas. They
also clear that the nutrients such as PO4, NO3 and SO4
are cycling is temporally disturbed and with soil erosion it drain to the
downward streams and highly contaminates their quality.
Costables, (1979) found that the mean infiltration rate of
forested area was much higher than those of other land uses, which included
grazed area, burned and terraced plots. The mean infiltration rates for forest
area, grazed area, burned area, and terraced plot were 4.50 mm/hr, 0.94 mm/hr,
2.00 mm/hr and 2.63 mm/hr respectively. The higher mean infiltration rate on
the forested area with a cover of 640 tones/ha was mostly due to the under
story vegetation, litter layer and microorganisms activities.
Lee, (1980) stated that trees affect the chemical quality
of water both directly and indirectly. They found that both throughfall and
steamflow are considerably enriched, by contact with trees, in all the major
cation and anions except hydrogen, which is reduced. They also reported that
increase in nitrogen, principally as organic nitrogen, in throughfall and
especially through streamflow; the increase in organic nitrogen was markedly
higher in stream flow from alder than from conifers. Uptake of nutrients by
trees and there is eventual return to the soil in litterfall must be recognized
for its role in influencing seasonal variations in the concentration of stream
flow nutrients. Nitrate nitrogen level often rises appreciably when forest
uptake of nutrients ceases during the dormant season. Litterfall especially
from deciduous species added to water bodies with low flushing rates may
increase true color, iron, bicarbonates, and manganese concentration, and
decrease dissolved oxygen levels and pH.
Berglund et al, (1981) concluded that the forest vegetation
and absence of grazing create favorable soil properties and that the
afforestation is best technique for rehabilitation of catchments.
Mathur et al, (1982) found that the infiltration rates in
coniferous forest
of Cedrus deodara,
Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana were higher than the
adjacent agricultural field without crop. This increased infiltration rate was
assumed because of thick humus layer under forested area. The forests stores
the ground water and then it release in a form of a natural spring and streams.
Spears, (1982) claimed that the root soak up water in the
wet periods and release it slowly and evenly in the dry season to deep water
supply adequately restored.
Bosch et al, (1982) discussed the forests and water
(quality and quantity) relationship, for this study they perform 94 different
catchment experiments. They found that the increase in total yield was
proportional to the reduction in canopy. This reduction results an increases
peak flows and flash flooding.
Lves et al, (1988) stated that the forest canopy reduction
through tree cutting reduce the evapotranspiration loses from the water budget
of forest watershed, resulting an increased water yield in stream from the
harvested area.
Banasik, (1989) stated that the infiltration of partial
deforestation in a small lowland watershed in central Poland on
storm-event sediment yield is analyzed. The rainfall runoff model was applied
to estimate the flood hydrograph. Sediment yield during this flood was estimated
from the modified Universal soil loss equation. Some parameters of the
procedure were established based on field data. Computation was carried out for
the original and partially deforested land use in the watershed. It was found
that an assumed deforestation of 10 percent of the peak flow rate by 17 % and
give a 74 % increase in sediment yield for the assumed rainfall and land cover
in the watershed.
The effect of different land uses on the soil permeability
was studied and afforestation was found to be the best management technique to
increase the infiltration capacity of soil and decrease surface runoff, the
erosion rate in catchments areas can be reduced which can check the silting up
an artificial water reservoir.
Wood et al, (1990) found that the deforestation watershed
granite hill-slope of south China
has led to widespread erosion using small experimental plots under different
vegetation cover. The effect of land use on soil and water losses was examined.
Over land flow increased as the over condition changed from forest to fern, to
tilled soil and eventually, to bear ground. This is related to the amount of
interception and infiltration, both of which decreased as the vegetation cover
decreased. Most slopes consist of a combination of loose material and weathered
granite in the resistance to sediment entrainment could not be easily
determined. The potential sediment yield increased as the vegetation cover
decreased. Based on empirical relationship between over land flow and potential
sediment yield, it is demonstrated that soil and water losses can be greatly
reduced as vegetation reestablished on this denuded sub tropical slopes.
The role of forests in soil and water conservation and the impact of forest
removal on related hydrological factors by emphasizing basic principles were
reviewed. Water yield will change after vegetation conditions of a watershed
are altered, but the relation of forests to water supply still remains
controversial due to the diversity of watershed conditions such as amount of
precipitation, dominant vegetation, cutting area, and harvesting methods. Forest and other land use patterns are compared in
relation to infiltration capacity, water retention and release water quality,
groundwater levels, flood mitigation, surface and gully erosion, air
temperature, wind speed, microclimate, and regional climate. It is concluded
that although forest have limitations they are the best land use pattern as far
as soil and water conservation are concerned.
HUJRA, 2000) implemented a project for the promotion of
biodiversity conservation through ecotourism and equitable resources use in
Miandam valley. They also demonstrate a participatory conservation and
sustainable use model for forest resources in Miandam valley. As a result of this project one village level
and six villages’s level conservation committee organized and made functional,
establishment of protected sites, ten thousand plants of mixed fruit species,
establishment of one biogas plant and hundred fuel-efficient stoves.
Environmental protection society (EPS), (2003) study the
limnology of the river swat. According to EPS report issued the pH, alkalinity,
conductivity and hardness of water in river stream of swat and its tributaries
are within the normal range but the sulphate, total solid contents i.e.
suspended and dissolved, were generally high in the tributaries. In most of the
river sites and its tributaries nitrate, sulphate contents while in the normal
range of NEQS proposed by World Health Organization. They realized that the
main culprit behind the high concentration of nitrates and phosphates were
agricultural fields where the domestic manure and various chemical fertilizers
are used.
Gul et al,
(2005-06) reported to identify the potential of ecotourism in the Miandam valley
swat. The study also focuses at the negative aspect of tourism i.e. the
spreading of pollution load, solid waste in the watersheds of the area. These
problems not only cause the degradation of environment but also degrade the
quality of water receiving by the natural streams. To control such problems
they provide suggestion for the promotion of ecotourism in which they specify
to establish tourist information center (TIC), tourist information broacher,
track maps, documentary films, camping sites and hiking tracks developments. This
will ultimately promote the green concept of the Miandam valley.
Petersen, et al (2006), worked at the “Water associated
problems in relation to agriculture in the watershed areas”. They stated that
water pollution is a widespread problem in agricultural settings. Runoff can
move sediment, nutrients, pathogens, salts, pesticides, and fertilizers to
streams, lakes, and aquifers. Elevated levels of turbidity, fecal coliform,
pesticides, nitrate-nitrogen, and phosphorus characterize streams in
agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentrations threaten drinking water
quality, whereas increased phosphorus levels are implicated in eutrophication
of surface waters. Sediment is the most widespread agricultural pollutant
delivered to streams and can be either suspended load or bed load. High
sediment loads in streams have a negative impact on fish and macro
invertebrates
Hubbart
et al, (2006) stated that the land use has a direct effect on the portion of
precipitation resulting in runoff.
Vegetation cover has a direct influence on the quantity of precipitation that
reaches the forest floor and the quantity that is accumulated as snow pack
and/or soil moisture. Forest cutting usually
results in an increase in water yield. As an extreme example, during urban
development, trees are often replaced by pavement. In this case there is very
little accumulation of water in the soil reservoir, and almost all rainfall
results in direct surface runoff. As pavement deteriorates and cracks, or as
trees grows back in the years following harvest (afforestation), soil
reservoirs gradually recharge, and water yield tends to decrease thereby
returning to previous flow levels.
Xiaoming et al, (2006) published a paper aims to
study the effects of vegetation on runoff and sediment transport at the
watershed scale, and to provide a theoretical basis for afforestation in the
Loess area, in the nested Caijiachuan watershed. Forest
watersheds and farmland watersheds with similar terrain features were selected
through cluster analysis to study their runoff and sediment transport
characteristics. Results showed that compared with farmland watersheds, runoff
generation time in forest watersheds was delayed remarkably, and peak flow was
reduced greatly, which indicates that vegetation played an important role in
holding and absorbing rainfall. Besides, with the increase of forest coverage,
the runoff amount, runoff depth and runoff coefficient decreased during the
rainy seasons. The runoff depth and runoff coefficient of farmland watersheds
in the rainy season were 5–20-fold as much as that of forest watersheds, and
runoff and sediment yield of watersheds with low coverage were 2.7–2.9-fold and
3–6-fold as great as those with high coverage during rainstorms, and low forest
coverage had larger variation in sediment hydrograph.
Hussain, (2006) investigated the effect of vegetation cover
on the water quality (sediment load) and runoff in Nathiagali. He compared the sediment yield from different
streams and vegetation conditions of those streams. Watersheds show that there
is a close relationship between vegetation cover (forest density) and hydric
erosion. It was found that a watershed having viable vegetation cover showing
slight difference in sediment yield. While the difference is maximum from
degraded forest. Forest provides excellent
protection to the soil against erosion. It maintains high rates of
evapotranspiration, interception and infiltration and therefore generates
sustainable quantities of run off. Increase in erosion occurs where the land is
permanently or in the case of shifting cultivation, temporary cleared for agriculture.
Hussain, (2006)
studied the impact of grazing and deforestation on the infiltration capacity of
soil at Ayubia National Park. The area was divided in
three different vegetation zone of different density canopy to comparatively
analyze the impacts of grazing and deforestation. The results indicate that
overgrazing and forest cutting has the significant impact on the absorption of
water by the soil. It cause greater runoff and enhance bulk soil density caused
by animal hoots. The high zone infiltration rate is 356.6 cm/ hour, moderate
zone 32.0 cm/ hour and low-density zone 28.9 cm/ hour respectively. When
deforestation and over grazing increase, it not only decreases land
infiltration but also decrease the ground storage of water. As a result of this
most of the perennial streams dry up and loaded with the heavy sediment yield.
Chapter # 4
METHODS
AND MATERIALS
Miandam valley is selected
for the study because of its suitability with the research topic. The various
data collection methods and procedures used are below
4.1 Discharge measurements
Discharge or water
quantification is the passing of water from point in per unit of time (m3/sec).
The discharge is measured for selected water khwars such as Swatoo,
Kaldar and Gujaroo .The tools used during measurement are Graduated
meter rod, measuring tape, Wood piece, Stopwatch and GPS (Table 5.1).
Discharge
measurement procedure
·
The water from different watersheds drain to a main khwars,
so the measuring point of these khwars is identified which is called its mouth.
The GPS readings are recoded at mouths to identify the location.
The area is calculated, for which the khwars
width and average depth is determined (section B-6, 7).
Area (m2) = width *
aveg depth
·
Velocity calculation is based on the distance of a part of a
stream covered by a wood piece in a unit time recoded with the stopwatch. So
that
Velocity = distance / seconds
·
So multiplying the area and velocity of the khwars performs
the overall discharge calculation.
Discharge (m3/sec) = Area (m2) * velocity (m/s)
4.2 Quality of water stream
The water
quality of the water is determined in two steps
4.2.1 Water sampling
The water
samples were taken from selected three water khwars. The plastic bottles
were used for taking samples. Before sampling the bottles were washed with hot
water to remove all the impurities present in form of suspended and dissolved
solids. After drying, the bottles were filled from the suitable depth (0.1-2
meters) of the stream for the purpose to include all type of load carried by
water.
4.2.2 Lab analysis
The water
samples taken in different season of summer, winter and spring are analyzed for
various physical (pH, turbidity, conductivity, temperature, suspended and
dissolve solids) and chemical parameters (Nitrates, sulphate, phosphates).
The
procedure for the determination of the various parameters are given below
4.2.2.1 Physical parameters
i) The water
quality checker Horiba Japan
was used for the determination of the physical parameters i.e. Temperature, pH,
and conductivity.
ii) The
turbidity meter was used for the turbidity measurement (NTU).
In the
turbidity meter standard tests were carried at 1 NTU, 10NTU, 100NTU and
1000NTU. The various samples were taken
in the small bottles of the turbidity meter. These samples stepwise compared
with standards and tested by the meter and compiled the results.
4.2.2.1.1.
Total solids (T.S)
Total solids = total
dissolved solids + total suspended solids
Ø Total
suspended solids
Apparatus:
Filter
paper, Vacuum desiccators, stirrer, Beaker, dry oven, analytical balance and
glass funnel.
Procedure:
First the
filter paper were taken and weighed by the analytical balance and noted the
first reading (B). Then the samples were filtered with the help of filter and
funnel. The wet filters were put in the oven for 103-105 C0 for about 30-40
minutes. After drying the filters was put in the desiccators to absorb some
moisture after desiccation, the filter paper was again weighed and noted the
reading (A). The amount of suspended solids presents in samples was shown in
the units of ppm.
Calculation
Total
solids = (A-B) * 1000/ ml of sample
A= weight
of china dish with dry residues
B= weight
of empty and clean dish
(Arnold et al, 1992).
Ø Total
Dissolved solids (T.D.S)
Apparatus:
Vacuum
desiccators, stirrer, china dish, dry oven, analytical balance and glass
funnel.
Procedure:
First dry
and clean china dishes were taken. Then the china dishes were put in oven at
temperature 103-105 C0 for one-hour time. Then the dishes were taken
and cooled in desiccators. Then the dishes were weighed (B), after weighing
known volume of each filtered sample was taken in each dish and put in oven at
temperature of 102-105 C0 for one hour. Then the dishes were cold at
room temperature, then again they were weighed (A). As a result the amount of
dissolved solids determined in units of ppm.
Calculation
Total solids = (A-B) * 1000/ ml
of sample
A= weight of china dish with dry residues
B= weight of empty and clean dish (Arnold E, et al, 1992)
4.2.2.2 Chemical parameters
In chemical
tests the samples were analyzed for Nitrate, Sulphate, phosphate, the procedure
of these parameters given the following
4.2.2.2.1 Nitrates
Reagents:
o
Phenol
disulphonic acid
o
10 Normal NaOH
solutions: dissolved 400 g NaOH in 1000 ml of distilled water.
o
Standard nitrate solution:
Dissolved
1.010 g of KNO3 in 1000 ml of distilled water to prepare 0.01 N
solutions. This solution is 614 ppm as Nitrate and is called stock nitrate
solution.
o
100-ppm standard Nitrate solution
Take
162.8 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 1000 ml with distilled water.
o 50 ppm
standard Nitrate solution
Take
250 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 50 ml.
o 15 ppm
standard Nitrate solution
o Take 30 ml
of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.
o 10 ppm
standard Nitrate solution
o Take 66 ml
of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.
o 5 ppm
standard Nitrate solution
Take
50 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.
Procedure
Take
china dishes and wash it thoroughly, dry the china dishes. Mark china dishes
according to the sample that is to be put in it. Put 50 ml of each sample and
standard nitrate solution in separate china dishes. Put the china dishes in
oven at 100 C0 till the
water evaporates. Remove the dry china dishes from the oven and add one ml of
phenol disulphonic acid to it. Tilt the china dishes around so that the acid
covers the whole china dish. Add few ml of distilled water. Add few mo of
distilled water. Add few ml of 10 N NaOH
solutions to china dishes. The appearance of yellow color shows the presence of
nitrates. Match it with yellow color given by the standard nitrate solution.
Determine the concentration by spectrophotometer as follow
Set
the photometer and set it on visible light at 410 nm wavelength. Put the
distilled water in the first cell of photometer, standards of nitrate solutions
in second cell and the samples are placed in the third and fourth cells. At
concentration mode fix the reading at zero when photometer is reading the
distilled water. For standard solution enter the standard concentration. Then
note the reading of nitrates in the samples.
4.2.2.2.2 Phosphate
Apparatus:
Graduated
cylinder, pipette, headers, volumetricflasks, and spectrophotometerU-1100
visible at wavelength of 410nm.
Reagents
a) H2SO4 5 N:
70
ml of concentrated H2SO4 were taken and diluted up to 500
ml.
b) Potassium
Antimony Tartarate solution:
1.3715
g of potassium antimony was dissolved in sufficient distilled water and diluted
to 500ml.
c) Ammonium
Molybdate:
20
g of (NH4)6MoO7)34 were dissolved
in 500 ml distilled water stored in glass stopper bottle.
d) Ascorbic
acid:
1.76
g of Ascorbic acid was dissolved in 100 ml distilled water.
e) Combined
Reagents:
100
ml of combined reagents i.e. 50 ml of 5N H2SO4 solution,
5 ml of potassium antimony Tartarate solution, 15 ml of Ammonium Molybdate and
30 ml or Ascorbic acid were mixed together at room temperature.
f) Stock
Phosphate solution:
219.5
mg of anhydrous KH2PO4 was dissolved in enough water and
were diluted up to 100 ml.
1ml
=50 micro gram PO4
g) Standard
phosphate solution:
50
ml stock solution was diluted unto 100 ml. This results in 25-ppm phosphate
solution. For 5 ppm and 10 ppm phosphate solution, 10ml and 20 ml of stock
solution was diluted
1 ml = 250
micro gram P.
Procedure:
20 ml of
each sample were taken in a small beaker. Few ml of combined reagent sere added
to the samples until blue color appeared. By using standard phosphate solution
of 5 or 10 ppm. The concentration of samples was checked on spectrophotometer
at visible wavelength of 880 nm (Arnold et al, 1992).
4.2.2.2.3 Sulphate:
Sulphate in
the water is determined by the turbidimetric method, the detail of which is
under.
Reagents
preparation
(a) Buffer
solution
The buffer
is prepare as 30g MgCl2.6H2O, 5 g of sodium acetate, 1 g
KNO3 and 20ml of acetic acid CH3COOH (99%) mixed in 500ml
of distilled water and make up to 1000ml.
(b) Barium
chloride (BaCl2)
Barium chloride
is used in crystal form (20-30 mesh).
(c) Standard
sulphate solution:
The
standards are prepared by taking the NaSO4 as a standard. The 0.676
g of NaSO4 was taken and dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water.
The concentration of this solution was 676 ppm as phosphate.
(d) ppm
standard solutions:
100 ppm,
50ppm, 10ppm, 5ppm and 3 ppm are prepared and diluted step by step from the
676-ppm standard solution of phosphate.
(e) For 100 ppm, 36.97 ml is taken from the
676-ppm standard solution and make up to 250 ml flask.
(f) For 50 ppm,
125 ml is taken from the 100-ppm standard solution and make up to 250 ml flask.
(g) For 10 ppm,
20 ml is taken from the 50 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml of flask.
(h) For 5 ppm,
50 ml is taken from the 10 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml of flask.
(i) For 3 ppm,
60 ml is taken from the 5 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml flask.
Procedure:
100 ml of sample is taken in he
Erlenmeyer flask 250 ml. Add 20 ml buffer solution and mix in stirring
apparatus .at stirring, add a spoonful of BaCl2 crystals and begin
time immediately. Stir for (60 + 2 sec) at constant speed. BaCl2
produced turbidity in the solution. We used the turbidity as a measure of
sulphate ions present in the solution. After the stirring the solution is pour
into absorption cell of photometer and measure the turbidity. In the four cells
of photometer pour distilled water in the first cell, standard in second cell
and samples were in 3rd and 4th. After comparing the samples with the standard,
the results were noted (Arnold et al, 1992).
4.3 GIS Cartography
During
field visit the co-ordinates of different locations of three selected water
khwars and Miandam stream system was identified by GPS .The vegetation map of
three khwars were modified on the toposheet of the area. Then the maps were
digitized in GIS through which the forest density was calculated and shown
(section C)
4.4 Photographs
Another
tool used for data collection is the photographs. Photographs were taken in
order to show the true picture of the area visually. The digital photos of the
various sites of the area were taken and used some of them in our report
(Section B).
Chapter # 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Factors affecting the discharge
(quantity) of water khwars
Generalizing and expanding
quantitative results of research from one particular watershed to other areas
is difficult since hydrologic impacts depend on the types of forestry
operations, catchment’s characteristics (e.g., vegetation, and soil types),
climate, watershed size, topography, and other land-use practices (Jason et al, 2006).
The watersheds of Miandam
valley are wide spread and covered large area. The different watershed has
different characteristics, which can betterly represent its nature and
valuability. The following factors produce various variations in the water
quantity of the water khwars, in which catchments area, water sources, natural
vegetation, and soil texture and temperature variation are include.
5.1.1 Catchment area
The catchment area is that
area from where a stream collects their water. Catchments area plays a vital
role in the collecting discharge of any stream. The watershed, which has great
catchments area, will receive more precipitation. In case of snowfall the snow accumulation
will more and as a result an ultimate increase in the lifetime of water source
in the watershed.
The results show great
variations in the discharge of different seasons of summer, winter and spring,
the major culprit behind this variation is the catchments area. The three
selected watershed areas are very different from each other i.e. the Gujaroo
watershed covers large catchments area from Swatoo watershed and Swatoo cover
large area than the Kaldar watershed.
5.1.2 Water sources
The water khwar are
dependant on the water sources available in a watershed. So the stream, which
has high sources of water, will contribute large amount of water to the down
streams.
In Miandam valley mostly
the sources of water are the snowfall, rainfall and natural springs. As the
area consists of high peaks of mountains so it receives a large amount of water in a
form of snowfall. The large watersheds receive large snowfall and
precipitation, so the snowfalls are accumulates and release water by melting
slowly and gradually in large interval of time.
5.1.3 Natural vegetation cover
Natural vegetation plays a
great role in the infiltration capacity of an area. The vegetation deep roots
absorb the water and increase the ground water level. When the infiltration rate
is more, the run off is decrease which ultimately decrease the soil erosion in
sedimentation rate in down stream waters. So the selected watersheds occupy
different vegetation cover i.e. Swatoo watershed have low vegetation cover
(< 30 %), Kaldar watershed moderate cover (30-60%) and Gujaroo high
vegetation cover (> 60%). So this situation of different vegetation creates
high fluctuations in the discharge (quantity) of water Khwar drain from these
watersheds.
5.1.4 Temperature
Temperature is also one of
the factors, which affect the discharge of the water khwar. It is because of
the fact that every thing expands with heating. So when the temperature is
become high the melting of accumulated snow is accelerated and large amount of
water is found in the nearby water streams. Because of the climatic conditions
the temperature is found different in the four seasons of the year. Hence it is
the only reasons that discharge level is found high in summer and comparatively
low in other seasons.
5.1.5 Topography
Topography can greatly
affect stream flow and the shape of a hydrograph through direct impacts on the
watershed’s response to precipitation. The shape of the hydrograph is
influenced by watershed characteristics such as slope, shape, size, elevation
and soil. A steeper slope is usually characterized by shallower soil depth and
increased overland
runoffthat moves at higher velocities. Some soils allow better
water
infiltration, which can also impact the hydrograph by lowering the
peak flow and broadening its time base. The response of smaller watersheds is
sensitive to high rainfall intensity while the response of larger watersheds is
dominated by soil reservoir storage capacity.
The hydrograph of small watersheds usually displays sharp and narrow
peaks while larger watersheds have broader peaks with a longer time base.
Rainfall to runoff ratios also change depending on the elevation (i.e.,
quantity of rain to quantity of runoff). For example, low-elevation watersheds
have a gentle slope and deeper soil and lower rainfall/runoff ratios relative
to high-elevation watersheds with steep slopes and shallow soils, which exhibit
much higher rainfall/runoff ratios (Jason et al, 2006).
5.2 Discharge
results
The discharge results of
three khwars along with its GPS
location readings in three different seasons are given separately in three
tables (section-A)
The table A.1 is clearly
represented by the graphs, so the Graphical representation of the discharge of
winter season is below in Fig-5.1
Fig- 5.1
The Fig.
shows that the Gujaroo khwar discharge 2.590 m3/sec is higher
than the Swatoo and Kaldar discharges in winter season. As it is
mention earlier that Gujaroo watershed has high density of vegetation
cover (> 60 %). But some factors such as large area of Gujaroo watershed
than Kaldar and Swatoo watersheds influence its discharge
quantity of water as it receives more precipitation in a form of snow in winter
season. When the temperature as low as 11 C0, the ice melting is
take place gradually and it contributes water for a long time (some is absorb
and the rest of water is runoff) than the Swatoo and Kaldar
watersheds. Because of this factor it
has high peak of water quantity, which it contributes to the Gujaroo khwar.
Kaldar flow (discharge) is normal between the Swatoo and Gujaroo
discharges because of its medium vegetation density cover (60-30 %).
As a result it proved that
the Swatoo watershed contributes more runoff, high discharge and low
infiltration comparatively Kaldar and Gujaroo watersheds.
The table A.2 (Section A)
is clearly represented by the following Fig 5.2, so the Graphical
representation of the discharge of spring season is
Fig-5.2
The above Fig 5.2 shows
that the Swatoo discharge 0.507 m3/sec is greater than 0.098
m3/sec and 0.174 m3/sec of Kaldar and Gujaroo
discharges respectively in spring season. From winter graph discussion it is
clear that the Gujaroo watershed high catchments area and high
vegetation cover contributes high discharge. But here in spring season its
discharge is low than Swatoo watershed discharge, which indicates the
vegetation difference between the two watersheds besides the fact that its area
is also high. The Kaldar khwar water quantity is again between the two
khwars discharges. The graph shows a high bar of discharge for Gujaroo
and small for Kaldar which not clearly represent the basic idea of
vegetation exist. This conflict between the Kaldar and Gujaroo discharges is
because of its different catchments area and water sources.
As a result of this
discussion the Swatoo watershed (< 30 %) contributes high amount of
water than the Kaldar (30-60%) and Gujaroo (> 60 %)
watersheds.
The table 5.3
(section A) is represented by the following Fig 5.3, the Graphical representation
of the summer season discharge is given below
Fig-5.3
The Fig- 5.3
shows that the Swatoo discharge 1.04 m3/sec is again high
than the 0.47 m3/sec and 0.312 m3/sec of Kaldar and
Gujaroo respectively in summer season. In summer season the temperature
is mostly dominated, which accelerates the melting of snow packs at the upper
peaks of the Watershed
Mountains. As a result of
melting a large amount of water is release to the down stream system exists in
the watersheds. So that is the reason through which this graph shows a very
high bar for the discharge of Swatoo Khwar because of its low absorption and
low vegetation cover. There is a
variation of area exits between the Kaldar and Gujaroo
watersheds, so the little bar of the graph shows a low discharge of Kaldar
Khwar is than of the Gujaroo one. If the external factors are
excluded, the Kaldar watershed (30-60 %) will contribute high discharge
of water than that of the Gujaroo watershed (>60 %)
5.3 Physical parameters
In the physical
parameters includes the pH, turbidity, temperature, DO, conductivity and total
suspended solids.
The pH
recorded for Swatoo khwar in winter, spring and summer are 6.9, 7.10 and
6.82.
Similarly the readings for Kaldar and Gujaroo
are 6.7, 7.16, 7.37 and 6.7, 7.25, 7.10 respectively. Overall pH of streams in
three seasons is normal and under the permissible limit.
Conductivity
Conductivity is defined as the
quantity of dissolved material in water and depends mainly on the solubility of
rocks and soils the water contacts. Conductivity has some relation with the
dissolved solids but not always similar because the conductivity is only
passing of the current from the ionic solids (Dara, 1995).
The conductivity
recorded in µs/cms for Swatoo in winter, spring and summer are 44.2,
78.6 and 77.3 µs/cms while for Kaldar and Gujaroo khwar are 55.8,
93.7, 124.1 and 55.4, 126.2, 122.2 µs/cms respectively. These differences in
conductivity among different sub watersheds are likely due to interactions with
soils as well as human activity.
Temperature
The temperature was
measured in C0 , the readings in three seasons are similar for Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo i.e. 11, 12 and 14 C0 respectively which is
under the accepted level.
Turbidity
Turbidity
of the water plays a very important role in water quality of a stream.
Turbidity is defined as the optical property of a water sample that causes
light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines
through the sample. “In simple terms, turbidity answers the question, "How
cloudy is the water”. (Dara, 1995). The turbidity (NTU) recorded in winter,
spring and summer for the Swatoo khwar are 5.7, 6.1 and 1 NTU, and for
the Kaldar khwar are 6.3, 5.8 and 1 NTU while for Gujaroo khwar
6.1, 5.4 and 1 NTU.
Total suspended solids
(TSS)
The total suspended solids concentrations and turbidity
both indicate the amount of solids suspended in the water, whether mineral
(e.g., soil particles) or organic (e.g., algae) (Dara, 1995). The amount of total suspended solids in ppm
calculated for Swatoo khwar is 3.435, 2.245 and 1.425 ppm. For the Kaldar
and Gujaroo khwars the amount is 9.80, 0.360, 0.815 ppm and 7.235, 1.06,
0.31 ppm respectively.
Fig-5.4
The high value found in TSS is 9.805 ppm for the Kaldar
Khwar in winter season while the lowest value recorded is 0.31 ppm for the Gujaroo
Khwar in summer season. In the Fig-5.4 all the TSS of water khwars under
the acceptable limit.
Total Dissolved solids
calculated (ppm) for the samples taken from the three selected water khwars
i.e. Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo in three seasons winter, spring
and summer. So the amount of TDS in milligram per liter (ppm) for Swatoo
is 22, 39, 39 ppm and for Kaldar 26, 44, 62 ppm while for Gujaroo
27, 63, 61 ppm respectively.
Fig-5.5 –
In the Fig -5.5 all the TDS of water khwars under the
acceptable limit. The high value found in TDS is 63 ppm for the Gujaroo Khwar in spring season. This is
not only the temperature, which affects the TDS of the water, but other factor
also involved. When the temperature is low then the solids dissolve in water
slowly comparatively to hot temperature of the water.
5.4 Chemical
quality
The chemical parameters measured include the nitrates,
phosphates and Sulphates.
Phosphate
Phosphorus is
one of the key elements necessary for growth of plants and animals. Phosphorus
in elemental form is very toxic and is subject to bioaccumulation. Phosphates
PO4 are formed from this element.
Phosphates are important in nature. Their occurrence may result from the
breakdown of organic pesticides, which contain phosphates. They may exist in
solution, as particles, loose fragments, or in the bodies of aquatic organisms
(Dara, 1995).
The different
values of phosphate in ppm in three seasons of winter, spring and summer are
calculated (ppm) in which the Swatoo
khwar is 0, 1.875, 2.246 ppm, Kaldar
khwar calculated is 0, 1.974, 1.520 ppm while the Gujaroo khwar is 0, 1.014, 7.960 ppm.
The graphical representation of phosphate is
given below by Fig.5.6
Fig- 5.6
The Fig-5.6
shows lower values i.e. 0 ppm in winter seasons for all khwars. The highest
value is recoded is 7.960 ppm for the Gujaroo
khwar in summer seasons. The seasonal results show that the phosphate
concentration is under the acceptable levels.
Nitrates
Nitrates are one
of the major components of water, which can cause different problems in the
water. The measured nitrates are tabulated below
Table.1 shows
the concentrations of nitrates in ppm for three different khwars. The results
are represented by the following Fig 5.7
Name of Stream
|
Concentration of
Nitrate in ppm
|
Winter
|
spring
|
summer
|
Swatoo khwar
|
2.20
|
2.41
|
3.34
|
Kaldar khwar
|
3.98
|
3.28
|
2.98
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
3.28
|
3.98
|
3.24
|
Fig-5.7
One of the study describe that the nitrate
have the following common sources Fertilizers and manure, Animal feedlots,
Municipal wastewater and sludge, Septic systems, and N-fixation from atmosphere
by legumes, bacteria and lightning (Dara, 1995). The analysis shows that the
nitrates concentration is high kaldar
khwar in winter season and of Gujaroo
khwar in spring season. The very low concentration is recorded for the swatoo khwar in winter season (table.1,
fig 5.7).
Sulphates
Sulphates (SO4) can be found in almost all-natural water. The
origin of most Sulphates compounds is the oxidation of Sulphates ores, or the
fertilizers and manure wastes. The maximum level of Sulphates suggested by the
World Health Organization (WHO) in the Guidelines for Drinking water is 500 ppm
(Dara, 1995). The analysis of Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo
khwar for sulphates (ppm) in the winter, spring and summer seasons are
shown in Fig 5.8.
Fig-5.8
The
minimum concentration of Sulphates is found in Swatoo khwar i.e. 2.45 ppm and the maximum concentration is 6.9 ppm
for Gujaroo khwar in spring season.
5.5
Discussion on the quality of stream water in
different season
In Miandam
valley the three watersheds which are most popular in the valley because of
their natural beauty. These watersheds have different vegetation density and
different land use pattern such as agriculture, range and forests. These land
uses not only influenced the quantity of water in downstream but also affects
the ground water quality as well as the surface stream /khwar waters. The
difference in the quality not only affected by the land use pattern but also by
season variation. The analyzed physical qualities of stream water have little
variation in different seasons. However turbidity of this water has some
differences, due to the forest density, which controls the erosion rate as well
as infiltration capacity of the soil. Suspended load of a stream is an
indicator of erosion was determined. Among the three watersheds, suspended load
of Swatoo khwar was high. This can be
attributing to the deforestation and land use pattern such as agricultural
activities of its watershed.
The different
land uses in the catchments area affects the chemical quality of the stream
such as agriculture practices where the use of fertilizer increase the
concentration of nitrate, phosphate and sulphate. The Phosphates and Nitrates
levels found also as a result of sewage discharge and decaying organic matter.
The peoples living in the catchments area use soap and detergents for different
purposes in daily life, which also increase the concentration of sulphate and
phosphate. The concentration of these chemicals is very low because of short
time for such kind of practices. The concentration of Sulphates, nitrate and
phosphate is considered as high in some seasons because of the nearby presence
of agricultural fields and domestic wastes. Rainfall can cause varying
amounts of phosphates to wash from farm soils into nearby waterways. However,
if an excess of phosphate enters the waterway; algae and aquatic plants will
grow wildly, choke up the waterway and use up large amounts of oxygen. This condition
is known as eutrophication. The rapid growth of aquatic vegetation can cause
the death and decay of vegetation and aquatic life because of the decrease in
dissolved oxygen levels.
This control of
chemical contents because of the vegetation absorption capacity that not only
raise the ground water table but also absorbed the chemical contents. So as a
result of discussion a little variation is found in the quality of streams in
various seasons. This variation effect is because of vegetative covers and some
other land uses in the valley.
Chapter # 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
It is concluded that the watershed which have the low
dense forest(less than 30 %) leave a high amount of water discharge
comparatively to the moderate forest zone (60-30 %) and high forest zone (above
than 60%). The three selected watershed discharges are very different from each
other in the three seasons of winter, spring and summer; it is because of some
external factors such as catchments area, topography and temperature. If the
involved factors are excluded, the vegetation and water relation will be very
obvious and clear in the watersheds. As the study focused on the comparison of
three watersheds of various vegetative cover, the comparison shows that the
watershed have low vegetation cover will contribute more water in the downward
stream, the absorption will be low and runoff
will be high. The present of vegetation regulate the melting of snow in the
upper stream area and increase the duration period of stream flow for
downstream areas. Vegetation not only improves the quality and quantity of
water and control erosion but also decrease the chances for occurrence of
floods in the downstream areas.
Vegetation not only
improves the quality and quantity of water and control erosion but also
decrease the chances for occurrence of floods in the downstream areas. The
water quality analysis shows a great relation in vegetation and water. In the
selected watersheds there exists a different land use that affects the water
quality differently. Such as the forested watershed minimize the sedimentation
rate in the water khwars because the forest hold the surface with the roots,
while the agriculture and grazing land of watersheds have a high rate of sediments.
The chemical content shows no much variation in the various seasons in case of
quality and vegetation. The variation exists but it is due to the different
land uses such as agriculture and residential areas. The agriculture chemical
fertilizers increase the level of nitrates, phosphate in the downward runoff
water. The detergents, soaps and various sewages increase the level of
phosphate and Sulphates. The high level of nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate
and Sulphates cause the Eutrophication of the streams.
As the
watershed contain three different land uses such as forest, agriculture and
rangelands in Miandam valley, the water quality and quantity is directly
related with these different land uses, so based on the above-mentioned conclusions, the
following recommendations are made that not only to regulate and clarify
the water and vegetation relations but also to manage the watersheds betterly.
Recommendations for Forest
·
In the forest,
degraded areas must be rehabilitated through plantation of indigenous species
and fast growing species. However, areas where problem of soil erosion is too
severe, forest engineering works may be initiated.
·
The existing forests should be fully protected
and completely stocked as soon as
possible.
·
The existing rangelands should be converted into
forest-cumgrass lands. Afforestation shall have to be done at catchments of
streams in ranges and afforestation shall have to be used also for treating the
rangelands near stream banks.
·
The area under forests should be increased for a
balanced proportion of forests in relation to the total area of the catchments
·
All the forest land should be preserved and
completely afforested by the Government with the great help of local people.
·
To reduce pressure on natural forest for fuel
wood, fast growing tree species like popular, wallow etc. should be grown in
the downstream areas. .
·
All the forest working plans should lay
considerable emphasis on vegetation and water conservation practices. The
forests in precipitous areas should not be worked for commercial exploitation
and their function should be restricted to provide a natural cover on the land.
·
An efficient system of fire protection should be
developed.
·
Cultivation on very step slope should be
abandoned.
·
Horticulture should be encouraged particularly
on cultivated lands, which are expected to erosion.
Recommendations for Agriculture
·
The agricultural
practices adopted in that area should be confined only to the gentle slope. All
agricultural land cultivated on slop should be planted with fruit trees only.
WWF-P and other custodian departments like HUJRA of project area should provide
fruit trees to the local people on subsidize rate.
·
Alternatives like
off-season vegetables and cultivation of profitable medicinal plants may be
introduced to their agriculture
·
The cultivated fields usually remain fallow
(inactive) during the monsoons when large runoff results from them.
Introduction of leguminous cover crops in the rainy season will increase
infiltration and will considerably reduce water and soil loss from the fallow
land
·
All the cultivated fields should be properly
terraced.
·
Downhill and uphill ploughing should be
discontinued and contour-ploughing preferabably with strip cropping should be
practiced.
·
Spillways should be constructed at suitable
places in the cultivated fields. Outlets should also be constructed for
field-to-field drainage.
·
Hillside
drainage should be ensured so that excessive water does not spoil the
agricultural fields.
·
Increased use of fertilizers should be minimize,
instead of fertilizers the green manuring should be encouraged as for as
possible.
·
An efficient system of water disposal from
cultivated lands involving as little soil erosion as possible should be
developed.
Recommendations for Rangelands
- Rotational grazing system
should be initiated in the forests for the improvement of surface grass
and biomass production. It should be ensured that the biomass consumption
should not exceed 50% and that livestock should be distributed evenly over
the forest area.
- To reduce grazing pressure
from the forest area. Some
medicinal species must be establish in Miandam valley with the involvement
of local peoples
- Grazing should be allowed only according to the
capacity of the forest and range areas.
·
A holistic awareness
program for different target groups must be developed, based on the results of
this study to brief local community about the impacts of deforestation and
overgrazing on the quality and quantity of water at Miandam valley.
·
Pond should be constructed at the foot of the
sloping areas. They will serves as
water stores for the livestock and will also control run-off
·
Badly depleted rangelands should be improved by
observing complete closures. They should be stocked by seeding of palatable
grasses and forage species.
·
Grazing should be controlled in all the
rangelands. Undue pressure of grazing should be avoided on particular areas.
Rotational closures should be applied for proper maintenance of rangelands.
·
Grass cutting and stall feeding should be encouraged
and free range discouraged.
·
Rotational pasturing should be enforced where
the ranges have been overgrazed and have deteriorated.
Some other suggestion for watershed
·
Masses should be educated about the importance
of various forest conservation
and watershed management treatments.
·
Excessive population from congested hilly areas
should be shifted to less populated canal colonies in the plains.
·
Protection of forest and vegetative bunds should
be strengthened by raising tree belts along side of them.
·
Grazing, lopping and timber concession should be
withdrawn from all state forests. The right holders may be compensated
adequately.
Section-A
Table No A.1 shows the readings of
Quantity (discharge m3/ sec) of water contributes by each watershed in winter
season (April)
S.No
|
Water
khwar
|
Discharge
(m3/ sec)
|
GPS
reading
|
1
|
Swatoo Khwar
|
2.125
|
N= 350
02 46.1
E= 720
33 57.3
|
2
|
Kaldar khwar
|
0.960
|
N= 350
02 43.3
E= 720
33 56.2
|
3
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
2.590
|
N= 350
03 11.6
E= 720 33
25.9
|
Table No. A.2 shows the readings of Quantity of
water contributes by each watershed in spring season (June)
S.No
|
Water khwar
|
Discharge (m3/ sec)
|
GPS reading
|
1
|
Swatoo Khwar
|
0.507
|
N= 350 02 46.1
E= 720 33 57.3
|
2
|
Kaldar khwar
|
0.098
|
N= 350 02 43.3
E= 720 33 56.2
|
3
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
0.174
|
N= 350 03 11.6
E= 720 33 25.9
|
Table No.
A.3 Shows the Quantity of water contributes by each watershed in summer
season (September)
S.No
|
Water
khwar
|
Discharge
(m3/ sec)
|
GPS
reading
|
1
|
Swatoo Khwar
|
1.040
|
N= 350
02 46.1
E= 720
33 57.3
|
2
|
Kaldar khwar
|
0.312
|
N= 350
02 43.3
E= 720
33 56.2
|
3
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
0.470
|
N= 350
03 11.6
E= 720 33
25.9
|
Table No.A.4 showing
the results of water quality analysis in winter season
S.No
|
parameter
|
Swatoo khwar
|
Kaldar khwar
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
1
|
pH
|
7.6
|
7.56
|
7.6
|
2
|
Conductivity (ms/cm)
|
0.025
|
0.032
|
0.025
|
3
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
5.7
|
6.3
|
6.1
|
4
|
Temperature (co)
|
10
|
10
|
10
|
5
|
TSS (mg/l)
|
3.435
|
9.805
|
7.21
|
6
|
TDS (mg/l)
|
1.07
|
0.1
|
0.14
|
7
|
Nitrates (mg/l)
|
2.20
|
2.41
|
3.34
|
8
|
Phosphate (mg/l)
|
Nill
|
Nill
|
Nill
|
9
|
Sulphate (mg/l)
|
3.1
|
1.8
|
3.4
|
Table No.A.5 showing the results of water quality analysis in spring season
S.No
|
parameter
|
Swatoo khwar
|
Kaldar khwar
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
1
|
pH
|
6.5
|
6.5
|
7.04
|
2
|
Conductivity (ms/cm)
|
0.049
|
0.078
|
0.080
|
3
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
6.1
|
5.8
|
5.4
|
4
|
Temperature (co)
|
11
|
11
|
11
|
5
|
TSS (mg/l)
|
2.245
|
2.68
|
1.06
|
6
|
TDS (mg/l)
|
0.7
|
0.38
|
0.05
|
7
|
Nitrates (mg/l)
|
3.980
|
3.280
|
2.98
|
8
|
Phosphate (mg/l)
|
1.875
|
1.974
|
1.014
|
9
|
Sulphate (mg/l)
|
2.45
|
6.80
|
6.90
|
Table No.A.6 showing
the results of water quality analysis in summer season
S.No
|
parameter
|
Swatoo khwar
|
Kaldar khwar
|
Gujaroo khwar
|
1
|
pH
|
7.0
|
7.0
|
6.98
|
2
|
Conductivity (ms/cm)
|
0.049
|
0.059
|
0.075
|
3
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
4
|
Temperature (co)
|
13
|
13
|
13
|
5
|
TSS (mg/l)
|
1.425
|
0.815
|
0.31
|
6
|
TDS (mg/l)
|
0.15
|
0.05
|
0.9
|
7
|
Nitrates (mg/l)
|
3.280
|
3.980
|
3.240
|
8
|
Phosphate (mg/l)
|
2.246
|
1.520
|
7.960
|
9
|
Sulphate (mg/l)
|
4.734
|
6.70
|
6.10
|
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Annexure.2
Site
Pictures
 |
Pic.1 Greenery of Ayubia National
Park (WWF-Pakistan)
|
 |
Pic .2 Researcher measuring the DBH of the Mother
tree
|
 |
Pic.3
Illegal cutting of conifer trees observed inside the park area
|
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