Theories of motivation

By Khan

Key words; Definitions of
Motivation, Importance of motivation, Theories of motivation, Behaviorist
Approaches to Motivation, Humanistic Approaches to Motivation, Maslow’s
Hierarchy Motivation  (of Needs), Characteristics of Motivation,
Cognitive theory

Theories of
motivation

Definitions
of Motivation: 

According to B.F. Skinner, “Motivation in school learning
involves arousing, persisting, sustaining and directing desirable
behavior.” 

According to Woodworth, “Motivation is the state of the individual
which disposes him to certain behavior for seeking goal.” 

Motivation is a state or condition of internal need, desire, or want
that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction (Kleinginna
and Kleinginna, 1981a).

Franken (2006) provides an additional component in his definition:

• The arousal, direction,
  and persistence of behavior.

Importance of motivation

Motivation is the most important factor involved in the modification of behavior,
it direct and energized learning and performance of the individual toward the
achievement of needs or desires.  The major question that motivation
theorists’ psychologists raise is whether motivation is a primary or secondary
influence on the modification of behavior.  Furthermore, are changes in
behavior could be better explained by the principles of environmental
influences, cognitive development, perception, emotion, personality or the unique
concepts that is pertinent for motivation.

The source of motivation can be categorized intrinsic (internal) either
extrinsic (external) in a person. Intrinsic sources could be further
subcategorized as either mind, mental, physical or body/ e.g. cognitive and thinking,
emotional, conative or spiritual.

Today need is also a factor that creates a condition for motivation towards
taking action or making a change in a certain direction to achieve that need.
According to Franken, Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either
positive or negative incentives or a combination of both. 

The following provides a brief description of the different sources of
motivation, initiation of action can be traced back one of these domains.

Behavioral/external 

·        
Associated
with stimulus

·        
The
individual obtain desired and pleasant consequences

·        
The
individual avoid undesired and unpleasant consequences

Social

·        
The
individual imitate positive models/ behavior

·        
The
individual acquire effective social competence skills

·        
The
individual became part of an institution, or community

Cognitive

• The individual give attention
  to something interesting or threatening


• The individual develop
  meaning or understanding


• The individual increase/decrease
  cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty


• The individual solve a
  problem or make a decision

·        
The
individual maintain homeostasis, balance

·        
The individual
eliminate threat or risk

Affective

·        
The
individual increase feeling good

·        
The
individual decrease feeling bad

·        
The
individual increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem

·        
The
individual maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

Conative 

·        
The
individual obtain personal dream

·        
The
individual develop or maintain self-efficacy

·        
The
individual take control of one's life

·        
The
individual eliminate threats to obtaining dream

·        
The
individual reduce others' control of one's life

Spiritual 

·        
The
individual understand purpose of his life

·        
The
individual connect self to ultimate unknowns

Theories of motivation

There are many theories of motivation.  Some of theories trace their roots to the
information processing (Cognitive) approach, some are behaviorist.

Behaviorist Approaches to Motivation 

The primary factor behavioral learning theory is motivation. 
Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli
energize and direct behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a). While in the Operant
learning the primary factor is consequences: the reinforcement provides
incentives to increase behavior and punishment decrease in behavior (Huitt
& Hummel, 1997b).

Cognitive theory motivation

The cognitive motivational theories trace their roots to the information
processing approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b).  The focus of this
approach is the categories and labels people use to help identify behaviors,
emotions, thoughts, and dispositions.

One cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is similar
to disequilibrium of Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Huitt &
Hummel, 2003).  This theory was developed by Leon Festinger social psychologist;
he states that when there is a difference between two beliefs, actions, or in a
belief and in an action, individuals will try to resolve the conflict and
discrepancies.  If as result disequilibrium is created, it will lead to
change his behavior which will lead to in behavior.

In Attribution theory an individual has an external attribution of success;
self-concept is not likely to change due to success or failure because the
individual will attribute it to external factors.  If the individual has
an internal ability, his self-concept will be ready to learning, and to do a
new activity easily and quickly. When in the process a failure or difficulty
occurs, the person will quickly lower his expectations to maintain
self-esteem. 

Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 

The source of motivation can be categorized
intrinsic (internal) either extrinsic (external) in a person. Intrinsic sources
could be further subcategorized as either mind, mental, physical or body/ e.g.
cognitive and thinking, emotional, conative or spiritual. Intrinsic motivation
is when we are intrinsically motivated, to do things for which we do not need
incentives or punishments. The humanistic perspective of motivation means
motivation from inner self, one’s own sense of competence, self-esteem and
self-actualization, Maslow’s is the influential humanistic theorist Humanistic
Approach.

Maslow’s Hierarchy Motivation (of Needs): 

Abraham Maslow (1954) presented his theory hierarchy of human needs
based on two factors: first deficiency needs and second growth needs.  In
deficiency needs, one must lower the need before moving to the next higher
level.  When these needs of an individual satisfied, if in future at some
point a deficiency is detected, the individual will remove the deficiency
easily.  The first four levels of attribution are:

Physiological: hunger, thirst, and comforts etc.

Security: need of Safety and Security (out of danger)

Belongingness: Love and
Belongingness, affiliation with others, acceptance by others

Esteem: Get approval and recognition from others for his achievement, and
competency

According to Maslow, an
individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if the deficiency needs are
met. 

Characteristics
of Motivation:

• Personal and internal feeling.


• Art of stimulating someone.


• Produces goal.


• Motivation can be either positive or
  negative.


• It is system oriented.

·        
It is a sort
of bargaining.

References

AACAP and David Pruitt. Your
Child: Emotional, Behavioral, and Cognitive Development from Infancy through
Pre-Adolescence. New York: Harper Collins, 1998.